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Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the United States was gripped by war hysteria. This was especially strong along the Pacific coast of the U.S., where residents feared more Japanese attacks on their cities, homes, and businesses. Leaders in California, Oregon, and Washington, demanded that the residents of Japanese ancestry be removed from their homes along the coast and relocated in isolated inland areas. As a result of this pressure, on February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which resulted in the forcible internment of 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry. More than two-thirds of those interned under the Executive Order were citizens of the United States, and none had ever shown any disloyalty. The War Relocation Authority was created to administer the assembly centers, relocation centers, and internment camps, and relocation of Japanese-Americans began in April 1942. Internment camps were scattered all over the interior West, in isolated desert areas of Arizona, California, Utah, Idaho, Colorado, and Wyoming, where Japanese-Americans were forced to carry on their lives under harsh conditions. Executive Order 9066 was rescinded by President Roosevelt in 1944, and the last of the camps was closed in March, 1946.
The single internment camp located in Utah was at Topaz, Utah, sixteen miles west of Delta, Utah. Named for a nearby mountain, Topaz was in the middle of an area charitably described as a "barren, sand-choked wasteland." The first internees were moved into Topaz in September, 1942, and it was closed in October, 1945. At its peak, Topaz held 9,408 people in barracks of tarpaper and wood.
Executive Order No. 9066
AUTHORIZING THE SECRETARY OF WAR TO PRESCRIBE MILITARY AREAS
Executive Order No. 9066
WHEREAS the successful prosecution of the war requires every possible protection against espionage and against sabotage to national-defense material, national-defense premises, and national-defense utilities as defined in section 4, Act of April 20, 1918, 40 Stat. 533, as amended by the act of November 30, 1940, 54 Stat. 1220, and the Act of August 21, 1941, 55 Stat. 655 (U. S. C., Title 50, Sec. 104):
NOW, THEREFORE, by virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United States, and Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders whom he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Commander deems such actions necessary or desirable, to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commanders may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and with such respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Sectary of War or the appropriate Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The Secretary of War is hereby authorized to provide for residents of any such area who are excluded therefrom, such transportation, food, shelter, and other accommodations as may be necessary, in the judgement of the Secretary of War or the said Military Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to accomplish the purpose of this order. The designation of military areas in any region or locality shall supersede designations of prohibited and restricted areas by the Attorney General under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, and shall supersede the responsibility and authority of the Attorney General under the said Proclamations in respect of such prohibited and restricted areas.
I hereby further authorize and direct the Secretary of War and the said Military Commanders to take such other steps as he or the appropriate Military Commander may deem advisable to enforce compliance with the restrictions applicable to each Military area hereinabove authorized to be designated, including the use of Federal troops and other Federal Agencies, with authority to accept assistance of state and local agencies.
I hereby further authorize and direct all Executive Departments, independent establishments and other Federal Agencies, to assist the Secretary of War or the said Military Commanders in carrying out this Executive Order, including the furnishing of medical aid, hospitalization, food, clothing, transportation, use of land, shelter, and other supplies, equipment, utilities, facilities and services.
This order shall not be construed as modifying or limiting in any way the authority heretofore granted under Executive Order No. 8972, dated December 12, 1941, nor shall it be construed as limiting or modifying the duty and responsibility of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, with respect to the investigation of alleged acts of sabotage or the duty and responsibility of the Attorney General and the Department of Justice under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, prescribing regulations for the conduct and control of alien enemies, except as such duty and responsibility is superseded by the designation of military areas hereunder.
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
February 19, 1942
The Japanese-American Relocation collection consists of photographs of the internment camps established during World War II. The photographs were taken at Tule Lake, California from 1942 to 1943 and are representative of the conditions of the camps and the life-styles of the Japanese-Americans who lived in them. There are photographs of living quarters, classrooms, parades, office workers, and farm laborers.
Photographs document Japanese American involvement in civil rights, and human rights organizational meetings. Photographs of the Kasai family dating back to 1930. An album of slides, with a typed narrative detailing a visit to Kyoto, Japan.
Kasai, a prominent Salt Lake community leader, was responsible for initiating the formation of the Japanese-American Citizens League in Utah
Links to Additional WRA Resources
and Related Material on the Internet
The Japanese American Internment The most comprehensive collection of information, materials and links to other sites on this subject found on the Web. A must see!
Born Free and Equal An Exhibition of Ansel Adams Photographs at the University of California, Irvine, Library.
War Relocation Authority Photographs of Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement, 1942-1945 . The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. [TIP: Select "Container Listing" for a list of the various WRA sites with thumbnail images from those collections.
The Decision To Evacuate the Japanese From the Pacific Coast by Stetson Conn.
The Museum of the City of San Francisco' s site dealing with removing the Japanese from "Little Tokio.
The Internment of the Ethnic Japanese in 1942: Was it Militarily Called For? By Unk. An anonymous essay questioning the military need for relocating ethnic Japanese.
A collection of stories from the camps, and one Nashville high school's report on the resettlement .
An exhibit on Camp Harmony , which was located outside Seattle.
Amercian Concentration Camps is the body of panoramic photo collages that Professor Hayashi has created from her visits to all of the Japanese-American internment camp sites. An exhibit of photos from the camp sites in the Web pages of Masumi Hayashi, a photography professor at Cleveland State University.
Japanese-Americans Internment Camps During World War II From the Special Collections Department, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah and Private Collections.
Abundant Dreams Diverted , by Sharon Boswell and Lorraine McConaghy, The Seattle Times on June 23, 1996.
The Japanese American Legacy Project from
Heart Mountain Relocation Camp from the
A Japanese American Memorial for All from
The Nikkei Page by
Heart Mountain Digital Preservation Project from
Japanese American Exhibit and Access Project by
Internment Experience, an On-Line Exhibit by
The Museum of the City of San Francisco by
WRA Camps in Arizona, 1942-1946 from the University of Arizona Library
Nikkei Heritage Online from
Conscience and the Constitution from
Children of the Camps by
Rabbit in the Moon from
Japanese American Internment Experience by
Internment of Japanese Americans by
by and J. E. Fallon
The 442nd Go for Broke by
Japanese-American Veterans' Association from
An Abridged History of The United States by
Hirasaki National Resource Center from
Civil Liberties Public Education Fund from
Japanese Relocation during World War II from the
Fort Missoula, Federal Detention Center from
Poston Arizona Gallery by
Manzanar Relocation Camp from
Manzanar Project by and D. Lockett
Our World, Manzanar by
Ansel Adams: Born Free and Equal by
Japanese Farmers in California by
History by
Mothers Who Think: Breaking the Silence with Rahna Reiko Rizzuto
Dorothea Lange from
Executive Order 9066 by
Internment of the Ethnic Japanese from
Beyond Heart Mountain by
An Internment Experience from by
The Japanese American Network at
Documents
Ex parte Mitsuye Endo, 323 U.S. 283 from
Excerpts from Personal Justice Denied from
Questions 27 and 28 by George Takei
A Stolen Youth by Julian Guthrie
Seabrook: Long a spot for starting life over by
Seabrook Cultural & Education Center from
Ghostly Camps, Alien Nation by Lawson Fusao Inada
Military Necessity or Racial Prejudice? by Tatiana A. Klimova
The Decision to Evacuate by Stetson Conn
The Construction of Race by
Free to Die for Their Country by Eric Muller
Snow Falling on Cedars from Random House
Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy from the Moynihan Commission
Japanese Canadian Historical Timeline from Japanese American Internment from Mindscape
Japanese-American Internment by
After 50 years, bitter memories endure by Corey Takahashi
Racism after internment by David Foster
When Americans were treated as traitors by Don Kazak
A fight for freedom by Sarah Reid
Poignant Memories by Stefanie Asin
Pawns in a Game: Latin Americans During War from Reuters News Service
The WW2 Japanese American Experience from
Miyatake: Documenting Disgrace from
Forum to give first-hand look into Japanese internment by Cindy Long
The Manzanar Project: Towards a Solution to Hunger by
Photo by Dorothea Lange .
WESTERN DEFENSE COMMAND AND FOURTH ARMY
WARTIME CIVIL CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
Presidio of San Francisco, California
May 3, 1942
INSTRUCTIONS
TO ALL PERSONS OF
JAPANESE
ANCESTRY
Living in the Following Area:
All of that portion of the City of Los Angeles, State of California, within that boundary beginning at the point at which North Figueron Street meets a line following the middle of the Los Angeles River; thence southerly and following the said line to East First Street; thence westerly on East First Street to Alameda Street; thence southerly on Alameda Street to East Third Street; thence northwesterly on East Third Street to Main Street; thence northerly on Main Street to First Street; thence north- westerly on First Street to Figueron Street; thence northeasterly on Figueron Street to the point of beginning. Pursuant to the provisions of Civilian Exclusion Order No. 33, this Headquarters, dated May 3, 1942, all persons of Japanese ancestry, both alien and non-alien , will be evacuated from the above area by 12 o'clock noon, P. W. T., Saturday, May 9, 1942.
No Japanese person living in the above area will be permitted to change residence after 12 o'clock noon, P. W. T., Sunday, May 3, 1942, without obtaining special permission from the representative of the Commanding General, Southern California Sector, at the Civil Control Station located at:
Japanese Union Church,
120 North San Pedro Street,
Los Angeles, California.
Such permits will only be granted for the purpose of uniting members of a family, or in cases of grave emergency.
The Civil Control Station is equipped to assist the Japanese population affected by this evacuation in the following ways:
1. Give advice and instructions on the evacuation.
2. Provide services with respect to the management, leasing, sale, storage or other disposition of most kinds of property, such as real estate, business and professional equipment, household goods, boats, automobiles and livestock.
3. Provide temporary residence elsewhere for all Japanese in family groups.
4. Transport persons and a limited amount of clothing and equipment to their new residence.
The Following Instructions Must Be Observed:
1. A responsible member of each family, preferably the head of the family, or the person in whose name most of the property is held, and each individual living alone, will report to the Civil Control Station to receive further instructions. This must be done between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Monday, May 4, 1942, or between 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M. on Tuesday, May 5, 1942.
2. Evacuees must carry with them on departure for the Assembly Center , the following property:
(a) Bedding and linens (no mattress) for each member of the family;
(b) Toilet articles for each member of the family;
(c) Extra clothing for each member of the family;
(d) Sufficient knives, forks, spoons, plates, bowls and cups for each member of the family;
(e) Essential personal effects for each member of the family.
All items carried will be securely packaged, tied and plainly marked with the name of the owner and numbered in accordance with instructions obtained at the Civil Control Station. The size and number of packages is limited to that which can be carried by the individual or family group.
3. No pets of any kind will be permitted.
4. No personal items and no household goods will be shipped to the Assembly Center.
5. The United States Government through its agencies will provide for the storage, at the sole risk of the owner, of the more substantial household items, such as iceboxes, washing machines, pianos and other heavy furniture. Cooking utensils and other small items will be accepted for storage if crated, packed and plainly marked with the name and address of the owner. Only one name and address will be used by a given family.
6. Each family, and individual living alone will be furnished transportation to the Assembly Center or will be authorized to travel by private automobile in a supervised group. All instructions pertaining to the movement will be obtained at the Civil Control Station.
Go to the Civil Control Station between the hours of 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M.,
Monday, May 4, 1942, or between the hours of 8:00 A. M. and 5:00 P. M.,
Tuesday, May 5, 1942, to receive further instructions.
J. L. DeWITT
Lieutenant General, U. S. Army
Commanding
SEE CIVILIAN EXCLUSION ORDER NO. 33.
Gila River Camp,Arizona. Credit: Wartime Relocation Authority
"At Gila, there were 7,700 people crowded into space designed for 5,000. They were housed in mess halls, recreation halls, and even latrines. As many as 25 persons lived in a space intended for four."
- Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians.
"In desert camps, the evacuees met severe extremes of temperature. In winter it reached 35 degrees below zero, and summer brought temperatures as high as 115 degrees. Rattlesnakes and desert wildlife added danger to discomfort."
- Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians.
"When we first arrived at Minidonka, everyone was forced to use outhouses since the sewer system had not been built. For about a year, the residents had to brave the cold and the stench of these accomodations."
- Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians.
More than 120,000 Americans of Japanese Ancestry were incarcerated in the following 10 camps scattered throughout Western states during World War II:
Amache (Granada), CO
Opened: August 24, 1942.
Closed: October 15, 1945.
Peak population: 7,318.
Gila River, AZ
Opened July 20, 1942. Closed November 10, 1945.
Peak Population 13,348.
Heart Mountain, WY
Opened August 12, 1942.Closed November 10, 1945.
Peak population 10,767.
Jerome, AR
Opened October 6, 1942.Closed June 30, 1944.
Peak population 8,497.
Manzanar, CA
Opened March 21, 1942.Closed November 21, 1945.
Peak population 10,046.
Minidoka, ID
Opened August 10, 1942. Closed October 28, 1945.
Peak population 9,397.
Poston (Colorado River), AZ
Opened May 8, 1942. Closed November 28, 1945.
Peak population 17,814.
Rohwer, AR
Opened September 18, 1942. Closed November 30, 1945.
Peak population 8,475.
Topaz (Central Utah), UT
Opened September 11, 1942. Closed October 31, 1945.
Peak population 8,130.
Tule Lake, CA
Opened May 27, 1942. Closed March 20, 1946.
Peak population 18,789.
America's Concentration Camps
Photographs of the remnants of the internment camps by Prof. Masumi Hayashi.
Civil Liberties Public Education Fund his organization was established by the Civil Liberties Act to support research and public education on the internment experience so that it will be remembered and not repeated. Contains many links to projects and researchers.
Conscience and the Constitution Documents the many Japanese American draft resisters within the WWII internment camps. Created for a new PBS program on the subject.
Evacuation of San Francisco Japanese
Extensive period news articles and images from the San Francisco Museum.
The Family Album Project
A collection of photographs depicting camp life taken by former internees.
Internment and the Law Focuses primarily on the legal issues surrounding internment, by Prof. Vernellia R. Randall of the University of Dayton School of Law.
Japanese American Exhibit and Access Project A multifaceted project to create a permanent Web site which provides enhanced access to the UW Libraries holdings on the incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II.
Japanese American Internment Experience - Santa Clara Valley
Information on the experience of Santa Clara Valley, CA, Japanese Americans.
Japanese American Internment Memorial A site dedicated to the bronze panoramic memorial in San Jose, CA, that re-tells the history of Japanese Americans in narrative panels.
The Japanese American Internment An extensive Web site about the relocation of Japanese Americans, with many articles and links.
Journal of San Diego History
The WWII relocation of San Diego's nikkei community.
Office of Redress Authority
The Department of Justice agency established by the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.
War Relocation Authority Photographs of Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement, 1942-1945 Over 7000 photographs document day-to-day life in individual relocation centers, as well as pre-evacuation activities in California, relocation of evacuees in various states, and resettlement activities. This collection reflects the point of view of the WRA.
442ND Go for Broke
Dedicated to the Japanese American WWII brigade, some of the most decorated soldiers in the War, who fough
The Assembly Centers: Temporary Internment Camps
Pictures of the various assembly centers.
Camp Harmony Exhibit Documents, letters and photographs from the Puyallup Assembly Center, a Japanese-American internment camp.
Heart Mountain Digital Preservation Project Features documents and photographs from the Heart Mountain Relocation Center Collection at the Northwest College in Powell, Wyoming.
Internment Camps at Tule Lake and Topaz From the Special Collections Department, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah, and Private Collections.
Manzanar National Historic Site One of the best preserved internment camps is now a part of the National Park Service and is open for self-guided tours.
Remembering Manzanar A site dedicated to improving the Manzanar Camp as a historic landmark.
War Relocation Authority Camps in Arizona, 1942-1946
Features images from approximately 40 photographs taken for the War Relocation Authority which depict life in Arizona's two camps: Gila and Poston (Colorado River)
Japanese American History
Japanese American History Archives
Books, periodicals, documents, maps, photographs, art and film relating to the Japanese experience in the United States from the mid-1800s, when the first Japanese pioneers set foot on American soil, to the present.
Japanese American National Museum
The mission of the museum is to make known the Japanese American experience as an integral part of our nation's heritage in order to improve understanding and appreciation for America's ethnic and cultural diversity.
National Japanese American Historical Society
The National Japanese American Historical Society (NJAHS), founded in 1980 in San Francisco, is a non-profit membership supported organization dedicated to the preservation, promotion, and dissemination of materials relating to the history and culture of Japanese Americans.
Japanese American Organizations
Japanese American Cultural and Community Center Started in 1980, JACCC is a non-profit organization IN L.A.with a mission to preserve and encourage an appreciation of Japanese and Japanese American heritage and cultural arts.
Japanese American Citizens League The JACL was founded in 1929 to fight discrimination against people of Japanese ancestry. It is the largest Asian American organization in the United States.
The Japanese American Network The Japanese American Nework (JA*Net) is a partnership of organizations that encourages the use of the Internet and interactive communications technologies to exchange information about Japanese Americans.
Asian American Health & Mental Health
Asian American Psychological Association
3003 N. Central Ave., Suite 103-198
Phoenix, AZ 85012
Asian Pacific Community Counseling
5330 Power Inn Rd., Suite A
Sacramento, CA 95820
Phone: (916) 383-6783
Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development
Asian American & Pacific Islander Concerns
5999 Stevenson Ave.
Alexandria, VA 22304
Email:
Japanese Counseling Program
Richmond Area Multi-Services, Inc.
3626 Balboa St.
San Francisco, CA 94121
Phone: (415) 668.5955, ext. 60
National Asian Women's Health Org.
250 Montgomery St., Suite 410
San Francisco, CA 94104
National Research Center on Asian American Mental Health
University of California
Department of Psychology
One Shields Ave.
Davis, CA 95616
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